When NASA administrator Jared Isaacman unveiled the crew of the Artemis III mission at Johnson Space Center in Houston earlier this month, he was ebullient. “We wish you godspeed on the journey ahead, you carry the fire of exploration from generations past, the confidence of this agency, and the support of this nation, and the dreams of millions who will be cheering you on.” The all-male crew – Italian astronaut Luca Parmitano and US astronauts Andre Douglas, Frank Rubio and Randy Bresnik – will launch into lower Earth orbit next year for a two-week mission to test lunar landers. This will build on the work of the Artemis II astronauts and the Artemis IV mission planned for 2028, which will see humans return to the Moon’s surface for the first time in 56 years.
Amid US Dominance, Other Nations Rise
Amid all of these headlines out of the US, it can be easy to lose sight of the fact it isn’t the only major actor in space. While the US might be leading the current space race, other countries are close behind. The race to the Moon and beyond is accelerating. Some say it’s for the benefit of all humanity. But is it really? In this seven-part series, we explore what our future in space will look like, how we might travel and survive out there, and what’s needed to stop a catastrophe from happening.
China’s Steady Lunar Program
In May, China successfully launched three taikonauts to its Tiangong space station. One of the taikonauts will remain on the station for a year to “explore human adaptability and performance limits”, according to Chinese state media. This will serve as a precursor to China’s plan to send a crewed mission to the Moon before the end of this decade, and establish a permanent lunar base by 2035. China announced its plans for the International Lunar Research Station (originally in partnership with Russia) in 2021. The base will likely be located somewhere near the Moon’s south pole and will be supported by the use of in-situ resources. These plans are very similar to those of NASA as part of the Artemis program. As such, they put China in direct opposition to the US.
China has actively invited other countries to become involved in the International Lunar Research Station. This is a deliberate attempt to position this opportunity as being more collaborative than the US-led Artemis project. States are actively invited to help set the rules of that collaboration. Along with China, current participants include Russia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Nicaragua, Serbia, Pakistan, South Africa, Thailand, Venezuela, Kazakhstan and Senegal.
Although no taikonaut has yet set foot on the Moon, China has had several very successful lunar missions. These include Chang'e 1 in 2007, a lunar orbiter mission that collected more than 1.3 terabytes of data used to produce a detailed map of the lunar surface. This was followed by Chang'e 2, which was launched in 2010 and captured high-resolution images of the Moon. Chang'e 3 delivered the Jade Rabbit rover to the lunar surface in 2013. Chang'e 4 completed the first successful landing on the far side of the Moon in 2019. One year later, Chang'e 5 returned a lunar sample to Earth. In 2024, Chang'e 6 returned another lunar sample – this time from the far side of the Moon – which has been studied for its resource potential. These missions are notable for their diversity, as well as their steady cadence across a relatively short timeframe.
India’s Lunar South Pole Success
India has also achieved lunar landing success with Chandrayaan-3 in 2023, becoming the first country to land at the lunar South Pole – the desired destination for most planned crewed missions. Chandrayaan-1, launched in 2008, was India’s first deep space mission. It consisted of a lunar orbiter and lunar probe that provided new insights into water molecules on the Moon. Chandrayaan-2, launched in 2019, consisted of a lunar orbiter, lander and rover. The lander crashed at the lunar South Pole. India plans to launch Chandrayaan-4 no earlier than 2028 to collect samples from the Moon’s surface. This is set to be followed by Chandrayaan-5 – a planned collaboration between India and Japan – to further explore the lunar South Pole.
Russia’s Nuclear Ambitions on the Moon
Russia’s lunar activities remain focused on uncrewed missions. Russia has a long and successful history of lunar orbiters and landers, with its last successful lunar landing in 1976 during the Soviet era. Its lunar program received a setback in 2023, with the crash of Luna25 at the lunar South Pole. However, as a partner in the International Lunar Research Station, Russia has announced the intention to build a nuclear power plant on the Moon by 2036.
Other Contenders and the Legal Framework
Other countries are also actively involved in lunar missions. Japan’s iSpace, for example, has experienced two unsuccessful lunar landing attempts: Hakuto-R in 2023 and Resilience in 2025. This shows lunar landings remain a difficult and challenging exercise. The Outer Space Treaty provides that space is “free for exploration and use by all States without discrimination of any kind” and that the Moon (and other celestial bodies) are “not subject to national appropriation” by claim of sovereignty or any other means. This of course means any state is open to establish a base on the Moon. Far more complex will be establishing how these various bases may operate safely on the challenging lunar surface.
